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The Aq Qoyunlu or the White Sheep Turkomans (, آغ‌قویونلولار; ) was a culturally Persianate,; "Christian sedentary inhabitants were not totally excluded from the economic, political, and social activities of the Āq Qoyunlū state and that Qara ʿOṯmān had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type. ... With the conquest of Iran, not only did the Āq Qoyunlū center of power shift eastward, but Iranian influences were soon brought to bear on their method of government and their culture."Kaushik Roy, Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750, (Bloomsbury, 2014), 38; "Post-Mongol Persia and Iraq were ruled by two tribal confederations: Akkoyunlu (White Sheep) (1378–1507) and Qaraoyunlu (Black Sheep). They were Persianate Turkoman Confederations of Anatolia (Asia Minor) and Azerbaijan." Michael M. Gunter, Historical dictionary of the Kurds (2010), p. 29 Turkoman

(2025). 9781598843361, ABC-Clio.
"His Qizilbash army overcame the massed forces of the dominant Ak Koyunlu (White Sheep) Turkomans at Sharur in 1501...".
(1972). 9780292707870, University of Texas Press.
"Better known as Turkomans... the interim Ak-Koyunlu and Karakoyunlu dynasties..."
tribal . Founded in the by Qara Yuluk Uthman Beg,Erdem, Ilham. "The Aq-qoyunlu State from the Death of Osman Bey to Uzun Hasan Bey (1435–1456)." (2008). “The creator of the Aq-Qoyunlu principality founded in the region of Diyarbakır was Kara Yülük Osman Bey, a member of the Bayındır tribe of the Oghuz.”Pines, Yuri, Michal Biran, and Jörg Rüpke, eds. the limits of universal rule: Eurasian empires compared. Cambridge University Press, 2021. "the Aq Qoyunlu, like the Ottomans, began life as a collection of loosely organized band of pastoral nomadic Oghuz raiders in the Diyarbakir region of eastern Anatolia"
"the dynasty controlled territory in their eastern Anatolian homelands"
they ruled parts of present-day eastern from 1378 to 1508, and in their last decades also ruled , , much of , , and where the ruler of Hormuz recognised Aq Qoyunlu suzerainty.Potts, Daniel T. Nomadism in Iran: from antiquity to the modern era. Oxford University Press, 2014.Wink, André. Indo-Islamic society: 14th–15th centuries. Vol. 3. Brill, 2003. The Aq Qoyunlu empire reached its zenith under .


History

Etymology
The name Aq Qoyunlu, literally meaning "those with white sheep",
(2019). 9781474464628, Edinburgh University Press.
is first mentioned in late 14th century sources. It has been suggested that this name refers to old totemic symbols, but according to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, the Turks were forbidden to eat the flesh of their totem-animals, and so this is unlikely given the importance of mutton in the diet of pastoral nomads. Another hypothesis is that the name refers to the predominant color of their flocks.


Origins
According to chronicles from the , the Aq Qoyunlu are first attested in the district of south of the from at least the 1340s.
(1989). 9780907132325, Pindar Press.
In these chronicles, Tur Ali Beg was mentioned as lord of the "Turks of ", who had already attained the rank of under the . Under his leadership, they besieged , but failed to take the town. A number of their leaders, including the 's founder, Qara Yuluk Uthman Beg, married Byzantine .Robert MacHenry. The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1993, , p. 184.

By the end of the period in the mid-14th century, the Oghuz tribes that comprised the Aq Qoyunlu confederation roamed the summer pastures in Armenia, in particular, the upper reaches of the river and winter pastures between the towns of Diyarbakır and . Since the end of the 14th century, Aq Qoyunlu waged constant wars with another tribal confederation of the Oghuz tribes, the . The leading Aq Qoyunlu tribe was the Bayandur tribe.

Uzun Hasan used to assert the claim that he was an "honorable descendant of and his grandson, Bayandur Khan". In a letter dating to the year 1470, which was sent to , the then-governor of , Uzun Hasan wrote that those from the Bayandur and Bayat tribes, as well as other tribes that belonged to the "Oghuz il", and formerly inhabited , and , came and served in his court. He also made the (seal) of the Bayandur tribe the symbol of his state. For this reason, the Bayandur tamga is found in Aq Qoyunlu coins, their official documents, inscriptions and flags.

Myth
The Aq Qoyunlu Sultans claimed descent from Bayindir Khan, who was a grandson of Oghuz Khan, the legendary ancestor of .

According to Professor G. L. Lewis:

According to the Kitab-i Diyarbakriyya, the ancestors of back to the prophet Adam in the 68th generation are listed by name and information is given about them. Among them is , the grandfather of Uzun Hasan's grandfather, who is also mentioned in other sources. But it is difficult to say whether Pehlivan Bey, Ezdi Bey and Idris Bey, who are listed in earlier periods, really existed. Most of the people who are listed as the ancestors of Uzun Hasan are names related to the Oghuz legend and to Oghuz rulers.


Uzun Hasan
The Aq Qoyunlu Turkomans first acquired land in 1402, when granted them all of in present-day Turkey. For a long time, the Aq Qoyunlu were unable to expand their territory, as the rival or "Black Sheep Turkomans" kept them at bay. However, this changed with the rule of Uzun Hasan, who defeated the Black Sheep Turkoman leader in 1467 at the Battle of Chapakchur.

After the death of , his son Hasan Ali, with the help of the Timurid ruler Abu Sa'id Mirza, marched on to meet Uzun Hasan. Deciding to spend the winter in , Abu Sa'id was defeated by the Aq Qoyunlu at the Battle of Qarabagh in 1469.

(2025). 9789751627520, Türk Tarih Kurumu. .
Uzun Hasan supported a new Timurid ruler in Yadgar Muhammad Mirza, and gave him military assistance in occupying , and temporarily capture in July 1470 from Sultan Husayn Bayqara.

Uzun Hasan was also able to take along with territories around the . However, around this time, the sought to expand eastwards, a serious threat that forced the Aq Qoyunlu into an alliance with the of central Anatolia.

As early as 1464, Uzun Hasan had requested military aid from one of the Ottoman Empire's strongest enemies, Venice. Despite Venetian promises, and the visit of Venetian ambassadors at the court of Uzun Hasan,

(2025). 9781108010818, Cambridge University Press. .
this aid never arrived and, as a result, Uzun Hasan was defeated by the Ottomans at the Battle of Otlukbeli in 1473, though this did not destroy the Aq Qoyunlu.

In 1469, Uzun Hasan sent the head of the Timurid Sultan, Sultan Abu Sa'id, with an embassy to the court of the newly ascended in Cairo. With these presents came a fathnama, in Persian, explaining to the Mamluk sultan the events leading up to the Aq Quyunlu—Timurid conflict approximately five months earlier, emphasizing in particular Sultan-Abu Sa'id's plans of aggression toward the Mamluk and Aq Quyunlu dominions—plans that were thwarted by Qaitbay's loyal peer Uzun Hasan. Despite the negative response from Qaitbay, Uzun Hasan's continued correspondence to the Mamluk Sultanate were in Persian.

In 1470, Uzun selected Abu Bakr Tihrani to compile a history of the Aq Qoyunlu confederation. The Kitab-i Diyarbakriyya, written in Persian, referred to Uzun Hasan as sahib-qiran and was the first historical work to assign this title to a non-Timurid ruler.

Uzun Hasan preserved relationships with the members of the popular dervish order whose main inclinations were towards , while promoting the urban religious establishment with donations and confirmations of tax concessions or endowments, and ordering the pursuit of extremist Shiite and . He married his daughter Alamshah Halime Begum to his nephew , the new head of the sect in .


Sultan Ya'qub
When Uzun Hasan died early in 1478, he was succeeded by his son Khalil Mirza for a few months, but the latter was defeated by a confederation under his younger brother Ya'qub at the battle of Khoy in July.
(1999). 9780874805659, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

Ya'qub, who reigned from 1478 to 1490, sustained the dynasty for a while longer. However, during the first four years of his reign there were seven pretenders to the throne who had to be put down. Unlike his father, Ya'qub Beg was not interested in popular religious rites and alienated a large part of the people, especially the Turks. Therefore, the vast majority of Turks became involved in the Safawiya order, which became a militant organization with an extreme Shiite ideology led by . Ya'qub initially sent Sheikh Haydar and his followers to a holy war against the , but soon decided to break the alliance because he feared the military power of Sheikh Haydar and his order. During his march to Georgia, Sheikh Haydar attacked one of Ya'qub's vassals, the , in revenge for his father, (assassinated in 1460), and Ya'qub sent troops to the , who defeated and killed Haydar and captured his three sons. This event further strengthened the pro-Safavid feeling among Azerbaijani and Anatolian Turkmen.

(1999). 9780874805659, University of Utah Press. .

Following Ya'qub's death, civil war again erupted, the Aq Qoyunlus destroyed themselves from within, and they ceased to be a threat to their neighbors. The , who were followers of the religious order, began to undermine the allegiance of the Aq Qoyunlu. The Safavids and the Aq Qoyunlu met in battle in the city of Nakhchivan in 1501 and the Safavid leader forced the Aq Qoyunlu to withdraw.

In his retreat from the Safavids, the Aq Qoyunlu leader destroyed an autonomous state of the Aq Qoyunlu in . The last Aq Qoyunlu leader, Sultan Murad, brother of Alwand, was also defeated by the same Safavid leader. Though Murād briefly established himself in Baghdad in 1501, he soon withdrew back to Diyar Bakr, signaling the end of the Aq Qoyunlu rule.


Ahmad Beg
Amidst the struggle for power between Uzun Hasan's grandsons Baysungur (son of Yaqub) and Rustam (son of Maqsud), their cousin Ahmed Bey appeared on the stage. Ahmed Bey was the son of Uzun Hasan's eldest son , who, in 1475, escaped to the Ottoman Empire, where the sultan, Mehmed the Conqueror, received Uğurlu Muhammad with kindness and gave him his daughter in marriage, of whom Ahmed Bey was born.Vladimir Minorsky. "The Aq-qoyunlu and Land Reforms (Turkmenica, 11)", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 17/3 (1955): 458.

Baysungur was dethroned in 1491 and expelled from . He made several unsuccessful attempts to return before he was killed in 1493. Desiring to reconcile both his religious establishment and the famous Sufi order, Rustam (1478–1490) immediately allowed Sheikh Haydar Safavi's sons to return to Ardabil in 1492. Two years later, Ayba Sultan ordered their re-arrest, as their rise threatened the Ak Koyunlu again, but their youngest son, , then seven years old, fled and was hidden by supporters in .

According to Hasan Rumlu's Ahsan al-tavarikh, in 1496–97, Hasan Ali Tarkhani went to the Ottoman Empire to tell Sultan that Azerbaijan and Persian Iraq were defenceless and suggested that Ahmed Bey, heir to that kingdom, should be sent there with Ottoman troops. Bayezid agreed to this idea, and by May 1497 Ahmad Bey faced Rustam near Araxes and defeated him.

After Ahmad's death, the Aq Qoyunlu became even more fragmented. The state was ruled by three sultans: in the west, Uzun Hasan's nephew in an enclave in Diyarbakir, and Alvand's brother Mohammad in Fars and (killed by violence in the summer of 1500 and replaced by Morad Mirza). The collapse of the Aq Qoyunlu state in Iran began in the autumn of 1501 with the defeat at the hands of Ismail Safavi, who had left Lahijan two years earlier and gathered a large audience of Turkmen warriors. He conquered Iraq-Ajami, and in the summer of 1503, Diyarbakir in 1507–1508 and in the autumn of 1508. The last Aq Qoyunlu sultan, Sultan Murad, who hoped to regain the throne with the help of Ottoman troops, was defeated and killed by Ismail's warriors in the last fortress of Rohada, ending the political rule of the Aq Qoyunlu dynasty.


Governance
The leaders of Aq Qoyunlu were from the Begundur or Bayandur clan of the C.E. Bosworth and R. Bulliet, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual , Columbia University Press, 1996, , p. 275. and were considered descendants of the semi-mythical founding father of the Oghuz, .Charles van der Leeuw. Azerbaijan: A Quest of Identity, a Short History, Palgrave Macmillan, , p. 81 The Bayandurs behaved like statesmen rather than warlords and gained the support of the merchant and feudal classes of (present-day , , and Georgia). The Aq Qoyunlu, along with the Qara Qoyunlu, were the last Iranian regimes that used their Chinggisid background to establish their legitimacy. Under Ya'qub Beg, the Chinggisid (traditional nomadic laws of the medieval of the Eurasian steppe lands) was dissolved.

Uzun Hasan's conquest of most of mainland Iran shifted the seat of power to the east, where the Aq Qoyunlu adopted Iranian customs for administration and culture. In the Iranian areas, Uzun Hasan preserved the previous bureaucratic structure along with its secretaries, who belonged to families that had in a number of instances served under different dynasties for several generations. The four top civil posts of the Aq Qoyunlu were all occupied by Iranians, which under Uzun Hasan included; the vizier, who led the great council ( ); the mostawfi al-mamalek, high-ranking financial accountants; the mohrdar, who affixed the state seal; and the marakur "stable master", who supervised the royal court.

Culture flourished under the Aq Qoyunlu, who, although of coming from a Turkic background, sponsored Iranian culture. Uzun Hasan himself adopted it and ruled in the style of an Iranian king. Despite his Turkoman background, he was proud of being an Iranian. At his new capital, Tabriz, he managed a refined Persian court. There he utilized the trappings of pre-Islamic Persian royalty and bureaucrats taken from several earlier Iranian regimes. Through the use of his increasing revenue, Uzun Hasan was able to buy the approval of the (clergy) and the mainly Iranian urban elite, while also taking care of the impoverished rural inhabitants.

In letters from the Ottoman Sultans, when addressing the kings of Aq Qoyunlu, such titles as "King of Iranian Kings", "Sultan of Iranian Sultans", Shāhanshāh-e Irān Khadiv-e Ajam " of Iran and Ruler of Persia", Jamshid shawkat va Fereydun rāyat va Dārā derāyat "Powerful like , flag of and wise like " have been used., pp. 193, 274, 315, 330, 332, 422 and 430. See also: Abdul Hussein Navai, Asnaad o Mokatebaat Tarikhi Iran (Historical sources and letters of Iran), Tehran, Bongaah Tarjomeh and Nashr-e-Ketab, 2536, pp. 578, 657, 701–702 and 707 Uzun Hassan also held the title -i Irān "Padishah of Iran", which was re-adopted by his distaff grandson Ismail I, founder of the Safavid Empire.H.R. Roemer, "The Safavid Period", in Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. VI, Cambridge University Press 1986, p. 339: "Further evidence of a desire to follow in the line of Turkmen rulers is Ismail's assumption of the title 'Padishah-i-Iran', previously held by Uzun Hasan."

The Aq Qoyunlu realm was notable for being inhabited by many prominent figures, such as the poets (died 1474), Baba Fighani Shirazi (died 1519), (died 1535), the poet, scholar and (died 1492) and the philosopher and theologian, Jalal al-Din Davani (died 1503).


Culture

Architecture
Uzun Hassan funded the renovation of mosques in various major centers and smaller towns, and had commemorative inscriptions made to express his support of Islam. He renovated and decorated the of the courtyard of the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, where he left a central dedicatory inscription in his name. Uzun Hassn decorated the entire surface of the South iwan with enamel tiles colored in cobalt blue.

Uzun Hassan also created the in his capital of , a large and splendid mosque with two minarets, where Uzun Hasan and his son Yaqub were buried.

Contributions to religious architecture continued under the descendants of Uzun Hasan, as for the in Isfahan, commissioned under , son of Uzun Hasan (r.1493-1496).

(1988). 9780691035871, Princeton University Press.


Tilework
It is thought that the blue-and-white tiles which can be found in the architectural decorations of , or in the capitals of and , were created by itinerant artists coming from the Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu capital of . The tilework of the Dome of the Rock in the Old City of Jerusalem was signed by "Abdallah of Tabriz" under a commission of the Ottoman Sultan Süleyman in 1545-1552. The influence of this Tabrizi school was also felt in Istanbul up to the mid-16th century.

The celebrated Hasht Behesht ("Eight Paradises") Palace in was also created by and completed by his son Yaqub Beg. It was represented in various manuscripts of the period, such as Khamsa of Nizami of 1481 commissioned by Yaqub Beg, and was influential in the development of the Hasht Behesht architectural style in Iran, including the in .

(2013). 9789004262577, BRILL. .


Art of the book
in , started by and completed by his son Yaqub Beg. Khamsa of Nizami (Tabriz, 1481).
(2025). 9780748633760, Edinburgh University Press. .
(1988). 9780691035871, Princeton Univ. Pr.
]] Uzun Hasan did not leave many marks in the area of literature. Miniatures became more "provincial" in taste, using bright colors and standardized figures, known as the "". His son Yaqub however displayed much more sophisticated tastes, which appeared in both calligraphy and paintings. He sponsored an important workshop in at his palace Hasht Behesht ("Eight paradises"), where numerous artists, poets, calligraphers and painters, produced some of the best manuscripts of the period. Their style combined Chinese patterns with Persian repertoire.
(2025). 9789461611284, Éditions Snoeck. .


Persian language literature
The Aq Qoyunlu patronized Persian belles-lettres which included poets like , Kamāl al-Dīn Banāʾī Haravī, Bābā Fighānī, Shahīdī Qumī. By the reign of Yaʿqūb, the Aq Qoyunlu court held a fondness for Persian poetry. 16th-century Azerbaijani poet Fuzuli was also born and raised under Aq Qoyunlu rule, writing his first known poem for .
(1992). 9789751711083, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayımlar Dairesi Başkanlığı.

Nur al-Din 'Abd al-Rahman Jami dedicated his poem, Salāmān va Absāl, which was written in Persian, to Yaʿqūb. Yaʿqūb rewarded Jami with a generous gift. Jami also wrote a eulogy, Silsilat al-zahab, which indirectly criticised Yaʿqūb immoral behavior. Yaʿqūb had Persian poems dedicated to him, including Ahli Shirazi's allegorical masnavi on love, Sham' va parvana and Bana'i's 5,000 verse narrative poem, Bahram va Bihruz.

Yaʿqūb's maternal nephew, 'Abd Allah Hatifi, wrote poetry for the five years he spent at the Aq Qoyunlu court.

Uzun Hasan and his son, Khalil, patronized, along with other prominent Sufis, members of the Kobrāvi and Neʿmatallāhi tariqats. According to the Tarikh-e lam-r-ye amini by Fazlallh b. Ruzbehn Khonji Esfahni, the court-commissioned history of Yaqub's reign, Uzun Hasan built close to 400 structures in the Aq Qoyunlu region for the purpose of Sufi communal retreat.


Miniatures
The Aq Qoyunlu commissioned numerous manuscripts with lavish miniatures, such as the Khamsa of Nizami (Tabriz, 1481) of Yaqub Beg, the or the more popular .
(1996). 9780300064650, Yale University Press. .
(2017). 9781351548922, Routledge. .
Yaqub Beg employed two main master miniaturists, and Darvish Muhammad, for the illustrations of his manuscripts.
(2025). 9789758362806, Sakip Sabanci Müzesi. .
The Khamsa of Nizami (Tabriz, 1481) is considered as "the supreme and ultimate fruit of his artistic patronage".
(1993). 9780907132448, Pindar Press.
The pictorial style has been qualified as having "ecstatic intensity".
(2025). 9780714124049, British Museum Press. .
One of the most famous miniatures added by Yaqub Beg is the , painted by the Herat artist Shaykhi. Compared to the balanced Timurid Herat style of for example, this miniature style uses a much more intense color palette, with acid greens and vivid blues, and abundant vegetation that seems to engulf the protagonists.

Another famous painting created under the patronage of Yaqub Beg is that of the Hasht Behesht Palace in , a palace started by and completed by his son Yaqub Beg. Here, Yaqub's palace in Tabriz is used as the setting for the Classical composition of the romantic scene .

(2025). 9780748633760, Edinburgh University Press. .
(1988). 9780691035871, Princeton Univ. Pr.

, one of the main painters at the court of Yaqub, is also well-known for making Chinese-style paintings, to which he sometimes afixed his own signature, such as [[:File:Chinese style scene, Aqqoyunlu Turkmen, signed by Shaykhi, ca. 1480. Tabriz. Topkapı Palace Library, H.2153, fol. 146v.jpg|''Two Young Women in Chinese Style Costume Seated on a Sofa ]] or .

(2016). 9789004323483, BRILL. .
Turkmen artists were generally prompt to experiment with new ideas, including Chinese ones or the works of Muhammad Siyah Qalam, in contrast with the more timid style of the Timurid court. Another characteristic of Turkmen miniatures, and particularly those of Shaykhi, compared to Timurid ones, is the rise of single-sheet illustrations, meaning that many paintings were no longer devoted to simply illustrating a given text, but were stand-alone artistic endeavours, creating images "of epic size and ambition".
(2025). 9781903973578, Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams.

Besides these miniatures in fine court style, there was also a quantity of more prosaic contemporary illustrated manuscripts, using a simpler and more stereotypical artistic idiom, belonging to the Turkoman Commercial style, and often centered around the city of .


Turkic language literature
Uzun Hassan was more of a military man and was not very involved in literary creations. Still, he is said to have translated Prophetic Traditions and made a version of the Qor'an in Turkish.

, is known to have commissioned a rare but refined illustrated manuscript in "Azarbayjani Turkish", the Diwān of Hidayat (). An adaption in of the Dīwān of ‘Alī Shīr Nawā’ī (1441-1501), the greatest representative of Chagatai literature who was active in the in , is also known to have likely been commissioned by Sultan Khalil. It is sometimes called .

Some of the works commissioned by Yaqub Sultan were in Chagatai (Eastern Turkic), such as a , or a made in Tabriz, "painted with Chinese landscapes, flowering trees, and birds in gold".


Administration
The Aq Qoyunlu administration encompassed two sections; the military caste, which mostly consisted of Turkomans, but also had Iranian tribesmen in it. The other section was the civil staff, which consisted of officials from established Persian families. V. Minorsky, "A Civil and Military Review in Fars" 881/1476, p. 172


Legacy
Despite their rivalry, the formed in a certain sense the posterity of the Aq Qoyunlu, as shown by the extent of their marital connections: , hereditary leader of the and grandfather of the future founder of the , married an Aq Qoyunlu princess (Uzun Hassan's sister, ). Their son also married a daughter of Uzun Hasan, Alamshah Halime Begum, a union out of which was born Shah Ismail. 's main wife was , an Aq Qoyunlu princess of the tribe, giving birth to his successor .
(2021). 9780691159324, Princeton University Press. .
(2024). 9783031586347, Springer Nature. .
' main wife was , also an Aq Qoyunlu princess of the tribe, giving birth to and Mohammad Khodabanda. Finally, the Safavids too were heirs to "a tribally constituted military elite" and encountered similar difficulties in forming a stable government.


Military

Evolution
The military of the Aq Qoyunlu initially reflected their rather loose political structure. Decisions were taken by a council ( kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs ( boy ḵānları), whose decision the sultan had to follow. A small army largely composed of tribal levies was in charge of securing pastoral lands, and essentially supported themselves through heir own lands and booty. The sultan also possessed a force of personal guards ( ḵawāṣṣ) provided by various nomadic groups.

Following their surprise victory over the confederation, many tribes previously under Qara Qoyunlu control joined the Aq Qoyunlu. The conquering armies of grew tremendously in size, probably exceeding 100,000 men. Even , as Aq Qoyunlu Governor of Fars, is reported to have had a force of 25,000 cavalry and 10,000 infantry, plus auxiliaries. The core power of this large military resided in the strength of its cavalry, while the absence of firearms was its principal weakness.


Structure
The organization of the Aq Qoyunlu army was based on the fusion of military traditions from both nomadic and settled cultures. The ethnic background of Aq-Qoyunlu troops were quite heterogeneous as it consisted of 'sarvars' of Azerbaijan, people of Persia and Iraq, Iranzamin askers, dilavers of Kurdistan, Turkmen mekhtars and others.

== Coinage ==


See also
  • List of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu
  • Turkmen invasions of Georgia


Notes

Bibliography
  • Bosworth, Clifford (1996) The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual (2nd ed.) Columbia University Press, New York,
  • (2025). 9781780763538, I.B. Tauris.
  • (2025). 9781108492140, Cambridge University Press.
  • Morby, John (2002) Dynasties of the World: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook (2nd ed.) Oxford University Press, Oxford, England,
  • (2025). 9789004298484, Brill.
  • Woods, John E. (1999) The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Confederation, Empire (2nd ed.) University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City,

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